![]() ![]() Intergenerational educational mobility has been at the heart of development discourse particularly in the sense of equality of long term income opportunity. Our results may contribute to the design of cost-effective interventions aiming to reduce micronutrient deficiencies in early childhood and their lifetime consequences. They could be eliminated by improved nutrition of 6-to 59-month-old children and public health measures. These costs hinder the country's development. Societal costs amounted to 1.44% of gross domestic product and 4.45% of DALYs in Pakistan in 2013. Costs are substantially higher in poorer households. deficiency anemia in 6- to 23-month-old children and the mortality caused by vitamin A deficiency. Costs are dominated by the impaired cognitive development induced by iron. Total societal costs amount to US$46 million in medical costs, US$3,222 million in production losses, and 3.4 million DALYs. The estimation is based on large population surveys, information on the health consequences of micronutrient deficiencies extracted from randomized trials, and a variety of other sources. We assess medical costs, production losses in terms of future incomes lost, and disability-adjusted life-years (DALYs). We develop a health economic model of the lifetime health and cost consequences of iodine, iron, vitamin A, and zinc deficiencies. To estimate the lifetime costs of micronutrient deficiencies in Pakistani children aged between 6 and 59 months. They may lead to increased morbidity and mortality as well as to impaired cognitive and physical development. ![]() Micronutrient deficiencies, a less visible form of undernutrition, are also endemic. In Pakistan, nearly half of children younger than 5 years are stunted and 1 in 3 is underweight. This result implies that labour market reforms are essential along with educational reforms to break this intergenerational persistence. On the contrary, when the father is formally employed, this persistence is higher at the higher levels of education. Results show that intergenerational persistence is higher at the lower levels of education when the father is informally employed. ![]() Therefore, the present study estimates the intergenerational persistence of education by considering the nature of parents’ employment through intergenerational elasticity and intergenerational correlation approaches of mobility measurement. Considering education as one of the transmission mechanisms of sectoral employment and poverty, no studies have yet conducted any comparative analysis of educational persistence across generations of formally and informally employed parents. Education and earnings are considered important factors that transmit informal employment across generations. Poverty persists across generations through the transmission of informal employment from one generation to the next. ![]()
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